World War- I, A Note for UPSC & State PSC Must go.

World War- I, A Note for UPSC & State PSC Must go.

World War - II, A Note for UPSC Aspirants

World War II, A Note for UPSC Aspirants- Must go. 

AKABAR - IMPORTANT FACTS OF MUGHAL EMPIRE

मुगल काल – अकबर
¶¶¶¶¶¶¶¶¶¶ मुगल काल – अकबर ¶¶¶¶¶¶¶¶¶
1. पानीपथ का द्वितीय युद्ध कब और किसके बीच लड़ा गया ?
►-1556 ई. में अकबर और हेमू विकमादित्य के बीच ।
2. पानीपथ का द्वितीय युद्ध में किसकी जीत हुई ?
►-अकबर
3. अकबर का जन्म कब और कहां हुआ ?
►-सन् 1542 ई. में हुमायूं के प्रवास के दौरान अमरकोट में राणा बीरसाल के महल में अकबर का जन्म हुआ ।
4. किसके संरक्षण में अकरब ने 1560 ई. तक शासन किया ?
►-बैरम खां
5. सिंहासन पर बैठते ही अकबर ने कौन सा युद्ध लड़ा और जीता ?
►-पानीपथ की दूसरी लड़ाई
6. अकबर ने कौन-सा कर समाप्त कर दिया ?
►-जजिया
7. अकबर ने सबसे पहले समुद्र कहां देखा ?
►-गुजरात विजय के दौरान
8. गुजरात विजय के दौरान अकबर किन विदेशियों से मिला ?
►-पुर्तगाली
9. हल्दीघाटी का प्रसिद्ध युद्ध कब और किसके बीच हुआ ?
►-1576 ई. में अकबर के सेनापति राजा मानसिंह ने महाराणा प्रताप को हराया ।
10. महाराणा प्रताप कहां का राजा था ?
►-मेवाड़
11. अकबर ने आगरा के नजदीक किस नगर की स्थापना की ?
►-फतेहपुर सीकरी
12. फतेहपुर सीकरी में प्रवेश के लिए बनाये गए दरवाजे को किस नाम से जानते हैं ?
►-बुलंद दरवाजा
13. बुलंद दरवाजा किस उपलक्ष्य में बनाया गया था ?
►-अकबर द्वारा गुजरात जीतने पर
14. अकबर ने फतेहपुर सीकरी में धार्मिक परिचर्चाओं के लिए क्या बनवाया था ?
►-इबादतखाना
15. अकबर ने किस धर्म की स्थापना की ?
►-तौहीद-ए-इलाही या दीन-ए-इलाही
16. दीन-ए-इलाही धर्म स्वीकार करने वाला प्रथम और अंतिम हिंदू कौन था ?
►-बीरबल
17. बीरबल के अलावा किस दरबारी ने दीन-ए-इलाही स्वीकार की ?
►-फैजी
18. अकबर के दरबार में नवरत्न के नाम से प्रसिद्ध व्यक्ति कौन-कौन थे ?
►-बीरबर, मानसिंह, फैजी, टोडरमल, अब्दुर्रहीम खानखाना, अबुल फजल, तानसेन, भगवान दास और मुल्ला दो प्याजा ।
19. आइने अकबरी तथा अकबरनामा की रचना किसने की ?
►-अबुल फजल
20. दहशाला व्यवस्था को लागू करने के लिए किसकी नियुक्ति की गई ?
►-करोरी (जिला अधिकारी)
21. अकबर ने शीरीकलम की उपाधि किसे दी ?
►-अब्दुलसमद
22. जरीकलम की उपाधि से किसे नवाजा गया ?
►-मुहम्मद हुसैन
23. अकबर ने महाभारत का फारसी अनुवाद किस नाम से करवाया ?
►-रम्जानामा
24. महाभारत का फारसी में रम्जानामा नाम से किसने अनुवाद किया ?
►-बदायूंनी नकीव खां
25. अकबर ने पंचतंत्र का फारसी में अनुवाद किस नाम से करवाया ?
►-अनवर-ए-सुहैली
26. पंचतंत्र का फारसी अनुवाद अनवर-ए-सुहैली किसने लिखी ?
►-अबुल फजल
27. अकबर ने भू-राजस्व के लिए कौन सी पद्धति अपनाई ?
►-दहसाला
28. मनसबदारी प्रथा किसने लागू की ?
►-अकबर
29. अकबर की मृत्यु कब हुई ?
►-1605 ई.
30. अकबर के मकबरे का निर्माण किस स्थान पर किया गया ?
►-जहांगीर ने आगरा के निकट सिकन्दरा में अकबर का मकबरा बनवाया ।
31. अकबर के समकालीन कौन से सूफी संत थे ?
►-शेख सलीम चिश्ती
32. बीरबल की मृत्यु कैसे हुई ?
►-युसुफजाइयों के विद्रोह को दबाने में ।
33. अकबर के महत्वपूर्ण कार्य
►- कार्य – वर्ष
दासप्रथा का अंत – 1562
तीर्थ यात्रा कर समाप्त – 1563
जजिया कर समाप्त – 1564
फतेहपुर सीकरी की स्थापना एवं
राजधानी आगरा का वहां स्तानांतरण – 1571
इबादतखाने की स्थापना – 1575
इबादतखाने में सभी धर्मो के लोगों को प्रवेश – 1578
मजहर की घोषणा – 1579
दीन-ए-इलाही की स्थापना – 1582
इलाही संवत् की शुरुआत – 1583
राजधानी लाहौर स्थानांतरित – 1585

MAHATMA GANDHI- SHORT NOTE

Synopsis
Born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, India, Mahatma Gandhi studied law and advocated for the civil rights of Indians, both at home under British rule and in South Africa. Gandhi became a leader of India’s independence movement, organizing boycotts against British institutions in peaceful forms of civil disobedience. He was killed by a fanatic in 1948.
Early Life
Indian nationalist leader Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, more commonly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, Kathiawar, India, which was then part of the British Empire. His father, Karamchand Gandhi, served as a chief minister in Porbandar and other states in western India. His mother, Putlibai, was a deeply religious woman who fasted regularly. Gandhi grew up worshiping the Hindu god Vishnu and following Jainism, a morally rigorous ancient Indian religion that espoused non-violence, fasting, meditation and vegetarianism.
Young Gandhi was a shy, unremarkable student who was so timid that he slept with the lights on even as a teenager. At the age of 13, he wed Kasturba Makanji, a merchant’s daughter, in an arranged marriage. In the ensuing years, the teenager rebelled by smoking, eating meat and stealing change from household servants.
In 1885, Gandhi endured the passing of his father and shortly after that the death of his young baby. Although Gandhi was interested in becoming a doctor, his father had hoped he would also become a government minister, so his family steered him to enter the legal profession. Shortly after the birth of the first of four surviving sons, 18-year-old Gandhi sailed for London, England, in 1888 to study law. The young Indian struggled with the transition to Western culture, and during his three-year stay in London, he became more committed to a meatless diet, joining the executive committee of the London Vegetarian Society, and started to read a variety of sacred texts to learn more about world religions.
Upon returning to India in 1891, Gandhi learned that his mother had died just weeks earlier. Then, he struggled to gain his footing as a lawyer. In his first courtroom case, a nervous Gandhi blanked when the time came to cross-examine a witness. He immediately fled the courtroom after reimbursing his client for his legal fees. After struggling to find work in India, Gandhi obtained a one-year contract to perform legal services in South Africa. Shortly after the birth of another son, he sailed for Durban in the South African state of Natal in April 1893.
Spiritual and Political Leader
When Gandhi arrived in South Africa, he was quickly appalled by the discrimination and racial segregation faced by Indian immigrants at the hands of white British and Boer authorities. Upon his first appearance in a Durban courtroom, Gandhi was asked to remove his turban. He refused and left the court instead. The Natal Advertiser mocked him in print as “an unwelcome visitor.”
A seminal moment in Gandhi’s life occurred days later on June 7, 1893, during a train trip to Pretoria when a white man objected to his presence in the first-class railway compartment, although he had a ticket. Refusing to move to the back of the train, Gandhi was forcibly removed and thrown off the train at a station in Pietermaritzburg. His act of civil disobedience awoke in him a determination to devote himself to fighting the “deep disease of color prejudice.” He vowed that night to “try, if possible, to root out the disease and suffer hardships in the process.” From that night forward, the small, unassuming man would grow into a giant force for civil rights.
Gandhi formed the Natal Indian Congress in 1894 to fight discrimination. At the end of his year-long contract, he prepared to return to India until he learned at his farewell party of a bill before the Natal Legislative Assembly that would deprive Indians of the right to vote. Fellow immigrants convinced Gandhi to stay and lead the fight against the legislation. Although Gandhi could not preve

ASHOKA THE GREAT INDIAN IMPEROR LIFE HISTORY

Ashoka
Title: Devanam Priyadarshi
Birth: 304 B.C.
Birthplace: Pataliputra (modern day Patna)
Dynasty: Maurya
Parents: Bindusara and Devi Dharma
Reign: 268 –232 B.C.
Symbol: Lion
Religion: Buddhism
Spouse: Asandhimitra, Devi, Karuvaki, Padmavati, Tishyaraksha
Children: Mahendra, Sanghamitra, Tivala, Kunala, Charumati
Ashoka was the third ruler of the illustrious Maurya dynasty and was one of the most powerful kings of the Indian subcontinent in ancient times. His reign between 273 BC and 232 B.C. was one of the most prosperous periods in the history of India. Ashoka’s empire consisted most of India, South Asia and beyond, stretching from present day Afghanistan and parts of Persia in the west, to Bengal and Assam in the east, and Mysore in the south. Buddhist literature document Ashoka as a cruel and ruthless monarch who underwent a change of heart after experiencing a particularly gruesome war, the Battle of Kalinga. After the war, he embraced Buddhism and dedicated his life towards dissemination of the tenets of the religion. He became a benevolent king, driving his administration to make a just and bountiful environment for his subjects. Owing to his benevolent nature as a ruler, he was given the title ‘Devanampriya Priyadarshi’. Ashoka and his glorious rule is associated with one of the most prosperous time in the history of India and as a tribute to his non-partisan philosophies, the Dharma Chakra adorning the Ashok stambh has been made a part of the Indian National Flag. The emblem of the Republic of India has been adapted from the Lion Capital of Ashoka.
Early Life
Ashoka was born to Mauryan King Bindusara and his queen Devi Dharma in 304 B.C. He was the grandson of the great Chandragupta Maurya, the founder emperor of the Maurya Dynasty. Dharma (alternatively known as Subhadrangi or Janapadkalyani) was the daughter of a Brahmin priest from the kindom of Champa, and was assigned relatively low position in the royal household owing to politics therein. By virtue of his mother’s position, Ashoka also received a low position among the princes. He had only one younger sibling, Vithashoka, but, several elder half-brothers. Right from his childhood days Ashoka showed great promise in the field of weaponry skills as well as academics. Ashoka’s father Bindusara, impressed with his skill and knowledge, appointed him as the Governer of Avanti. Here he met and married Devi, the daughter of a tradesman from Vidisha. Ashoka and Devi had two children, son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra.
Asoka quickly grew into an excellent warrior general and an astute statesman. His command on the Mauryan army started growing day by day. Ashoka’s elder brothers became jealous of him and they assumed him being favoured by King Bindusara as his successor to the throne. King Bindusara’s eldest son Sushima convinced his father to send Ashoka far away from the capital city of Pataliputra to Takshashila province. The excuse given was to subdue a revolt by the citizens of Takshashila. However, the moment Ashoka reached the province, the militias welcomed him with open arms and the uprising came to an end without any fight. This particular success of Asoka made his elder brothers, especially Susima, more insecure.
Accession to the Throne
Susima started inciting Bindusara against Ashoka, who was then sent into exile by the emperor. Ashoka went to Kalinga, where he met a fisherwoman named Kaurwaki. He fell in love with her and later, made Kaurwaki his second or third wife. Soon, the province of Ujjain started witnessing a violent uprising. Emperor Bindusara called back Ashoka from exile and sent him to Ujjain. The prince was injured in the ensuing battle and was treated by Buddhist monks and nuns. It was in Ujjain that Asoka first came to know about the life and teachings of Buddha.
In the following year, Bindusura became seriously ill and was literally on his deathbed. Sushima was nominated successor by the king but his autocratic nature made him unfavoura

Downfall of Mouryan Empire- A Note of UPSC

The decline of the Maurya Dynasty was rather rapid after the death of Ashoka/Asoka. One obvious reason for it was the succession of weak kings. Another immediate cause was the partition of the Empire into two. Had not the partition taken place, the Greek invasions could have been held back giving a chance to the Mauryas to re-establish some degree of their previous power.

Regarding the decline much has been written. Haraprasad Sastri contends that the revolt by Pushyamitra was the result of brahminical reaction against the pro-Buddhist policies of Ashoka and pro-Jaina policies of his successors. Basing themselves on this thesis, some maintain the view that brahminical reaction was responsible for the decline because of the following reasons.

1. Prohibitino of the slaughter of animals displeased the Brahmins as animal sacrifices were esteemed by them.
2. The book Divyavadana refers to the persecution of Buddhists by Pushyamitra Sunga.
3. Asoka's claim that he exposed the Budheveas (brahmins) as false gods shows that Ashoka was not well disposed towards Brahmins.
4. The capture of power by Pushyamitra Sunga shows the triumph of Brahmins.

All these four points can be easily refuted. Asoka's compassion towards animals was not an overnight decision. Repulsion of animal sacrifices grew over a long period of time. Even Brahmins gave it up by the book Divyavadana, cannot be relied upon since it was during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga that the Sanchi and Barhut stupas were completed. Probably the impression of the persecution of Buddhism was created by Menander's invasion who was a Budhhist. Thridly, the word 'budheva' is misinterpreted because this word is to be taken in the context of some other phrase. Viewed like this, this word has nothing to do with brahminism. Fourthly, the victory of Pushyamitra Sunga clearly shows that the last of the Mauryas was an incompetent ruler since he was overthrown in the very presence of his army, and this had nothing to do with brahminical reaction against Asoka's patronage of Budhism. Moreover, the very fact that a Brahmin was the commander in chief of the Mauryan ruler proves that the Mauryas and the Brahmins were on good terms.

After all, the distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism in India was purely sectarian and never more than the difference between saivism and vaishnavism. The exclusiveness of religious doctrines is a Semitic conception, which was unknown to India for a long time. Buddha himself was looked upon in his lifetime and afterwards as a Hindu saint and avatar and his followers were but another sect in the great Aryan tradition. Ashoka was a Buddhist in the same way as Harsha was a Budhist, or Kumarapala was a Jain. But in the view of the people of the day he was a Hindu monarch following one of the recognized sects. His own inscriptions bear ample withness to the fact. While his doctrines follow themiddle path, his gifts are to the brahmibns, sramansa (Buddhist priests) and others equally. His own name of adoption is Devanam Priya, the beloved of the gods. Which gods? Surely the gods of the Aryan religion. Buddhism had no gods of its own. The idea that Ashoka was a kind of Buddhist Constantine declearing himself against paganism is a complete misreading of India conditions. Asoka was a kind or Buddhist Constantine declearing himself against paganism is a complete misreading of India conditions. Asoka was essentially a Hindu, as indeed was the founder of the sect to which he belonged.

Raychaudhury too rebuts the arguments of Sastri. The empire had shrunk considerably and there was no revolution. Killing the Mauryan King while he was reviewing the army points to a palace coup detat not a revolution. The organization were ready to accept any one who could promise a more efficient organisation. Also if Pushyamitra was really a representative of brahminical reaction he neighbouting kings would have definitely given him assistance.

The argument that the empire became effete because of Asokan policies is also very thin. All the evidence suggests that Asoka was a stern monarch although his reign witnessed only a single campaign. He was shrewd enough in retaining Kalinga although he expressed his remorse. Well he was wordly-wise to enslave and-and-half lakh sudras of Kalinga and bring them to the Magadha region to cut forests and cultivate land. More than this his tours of the empire were not only meant for the sake of piety but also for keeping an eye on the centrifugal tendencies of the empire. Which addressing the tribal people Asoka expressed his willingness to for given. More draconian was Ashoka's message to the forest tribes who were warned of the power which he possessed. This view of Raychoudhury on the pacifism of the State cannot be substantiated.

Apart from these two major writers there is a third view as expressed by kosambi. He based his arguments that unnccessary measures were taken up to increase tax and the punch-marked coins of the period show evidence of debasement. This contention too cannot be up held. It is quite possible that debased coins began to circulate during the period of the later Mauryas. On the other hand the debasement may also indicate that there was an increased demand for silver in relation to goods leading to the silver content of the coins being reduced. More important point is the fact that the material remains of the post-Asokan era do not suggest any pressure on the economy. Instead the economy prospered as shown by archaeological evidence at Hastinapura and Sisupalqarh. The reign of Asoka was an asset to the economy. The unification of the country under single efficient administration the organization and increase in communications meant the development of trade as well as an opening of many new commercial interest. In the post - Asokan period surplus wealth was used by the rising commercial classes to decorate religious buildings. The sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi and the Deccan caves was the contribution of this new bourgeoisie.

Still another view regarding of the decline of Mauryas was that the coup of Pushyamitra was a peoples' revolt against Mauryans oppression and a rejection of the Maurya adoption of foreign ideas, as far interest in Mauryan Art.

This argument is based on the view that Sunga art (Sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi) is more earthy and in the folk tradition that Maruyan art. This is more stretching the argument too far. The character of Sunga art changed because it served a different purpose and its donors belonged to different social classes. Also, Sunga art conformed more to the folk traditions because Buddhism itself had incorporated large elements of popular cults and because the donors of this art, many of whom may have been artisans, were culturally more in the mainstream of folk tradition.

One more reasoning to support the popular revolt theory is based on Asoka's ban on the samajas. Asoka did ban festive meetings and discouraged eating of meat. These too might have entagonised the population but it is doubtful whether these prohibitions were strictly enforced. The above argument (people's revolt) also means that Asoka's policy was continued by his successors also, an assumption not confirmed by historical data. Further more, it is unlikely that there was sufficient national consciousness among the varied people of the Mauryan empire. It is also argued by these theorists that Asokan policy in all its details was continued by the later Mauryas, which is not a historical fact.

Still another argument that is advanced in favour of the idea of revolt against the Mauryas is that the land tax under the Mauryas was one-quarter, which was very burden some to the cultivator. But historical evidence shows something else. The land tax varied from region to region according to the fertility of the soil and the availability of water. The figure of one quarter stated by Magasthenes probably referred only to the fertile and well-watered regions around Pataliputra.

Thus the decline of the Mauryan empire cannot be satisfactorily explained by referring to Military inactivity, Brahmin resentment, popular uprising or economic pressure. The causes of the decline were more fundamental. The organization of administration and the concept of the State were such that they could be sustained by only by kings of considerably personal ability. After the death of Asoka there was definitely a weakening at the center particularly after the division of the empire, which inevitably led to the breaking of provinces from the Mauryan rule.

Also, it should be borne in mind that all the officials owed their loyalty to the king and not to the State. This meant that a change of king could result in change of officials leading to the demoralization of the officers. Mauryas had no system of ensuring the continuation of well-planned bureaucracy.

The next important weakness of the Mauryan Empire was its extreme centralization and the virtual monopoly of all powers by the king. There was a total absence of any advisory institution representing public opinion. That is why the Mauryas depended greatly on the espionage system. Added to this lack of representative institutions there was no distinction between the executive and the judiciary of the government. An incapable king may use the officers either for purposes of oppression or fail to use it for good purpose. And as the successors of Asoka happened to be weak, the empire inevitably declined.

Added to these two factors, there is no conception of national unity of political consciousness. It is clear from the fact that even the resistance against the greeks as the hated miecchas was not an organized one. The only resistance was that of the local rulers who were afraid of losing their newly acquired territory. It is significant that when Porus was fighting Alexander, or when Subhagasena was paying tribute to Antiochus, they were doing so as isolated rulers in the northwest of India. They had no support from Pataliputra, nor are they even mentioned in any Indian sources as offering resistance to the hated Yavanas. Even the heroic Porus, who, enemy though he was, won the admiration of the Greeks, is left unrecorded in Indian sources.

Another associated point of great importance is the fact that the Mauryan Empire which was highly centralized and autocratic was the first and last one of its kind. If the Mauryan Empire did not survive for long, it could be because of the failure of the successors of Asoka to hold on to the principles that could make success of such an empire. Further, the Mauryan empire and the philosophy of the empire was not in tune with the spirit of the time because Aryanism and brahminism was very much there. According to the Brahmin or Aryan philosophy, the king was only an upholder of dharma, but never the crucial or architecture factor influencing the whole of life. In other words, the sentiment of the people towards the political factor, that is the State was never established in India. Such being the reality, when the successors of Asoka failed to make use of the institution and the thinking that was needed to make a success of a centralized political authority. The Mauryan Empire declined without anyone's regret.

Other factors of importance that contributed to the decline and lack of national unity were the ownership of land and inequality of economic levels. Land could frequently change hands. Fertility wise the region of the Ganges was more prosperous than northern Deccan. Mauryan administration was not fully tuned to meet the existing disparities in economic activity. Had the southern region been more developed, the empire could have witnessed economic homogeneity.

Also the people of the sub-continent were not of uniform cultural level. The sophisticated cities and the trade centers were a great contrast to the isolated village communities. All these differences naturally led to the economic and political structures being different from region to region. It is also a fact that even the languages spoken were varied. The history of a sub-continent and their casual relationships. The causes of the decline of the Mauryan empire must, in large part, be attributed to top heavy administration where authority was entirely in the hands of a few persons while national consciousness was unknown.